Examine the three theoretical models of opportunity recognition Essay

Examine the three theoretical models of opportunity recognition - Essay Example In our second section, we de-construct the factors that impact opportunity recognition. Here, we explain the various ways in which cognition impacts opportunity recognition. In our third section, we study the influence of human and social capital on the opportunity recognition process. In our fourth and last section, we summarize the arguments and provide concluding remarks. I. Opportunity Recognition: theoretical constructs The capacity to identify and spot a successful business opportunity is the hallmark of a preliminary stage in any new entrepreneurial venture creation (Ardichvili, Cardozo & Ray 2003). Once an opportunity is recognized, the individual then proceeds to analyze it through different angles. What distinguishes an individual’s capability to identify the right opportunity? This forms the basis of the discussion for our paper. When we extend the unit of analysis from an individual to a firm, then we can also infer that opportunity recognition follows from a caref ul, analytical process (Denrell, Fang & Winter 2003). Possibly, we could conclude that an individual may not possess all the resources that are at the disposal of a firm, yet an individual develops his or her own methods to evaluate a business opportunity. ... These form the broad backbone of the opportunity recognition process. Shane (2003 p.60) also lists out three factors that influence the possibility of gaining information access: 1) prior life and work experience, 2) the social network structure and 3) information search. Previous experiences in a particular field helps people gain awareness and confidence about the domain. Sometimes, this translates into a deeper capacity for identifying unexplored business possibilities within the chosen business realm (Bishop 2011). Again, if the individuals belong to a family that has predominantly focused on their own businesses, this could influence them to spot business opportunities more easily. In essence, family occupation could influence individuals’ attitude and thought processes about business. Certain functional domains could also guide individuals towards entrepreneurial domains. For examples, people with more exposure to sales and marketing tend to have a good grasp of the mark et. They understand consumer behavior to some extent and can appreciate the process flow of business. This could be one factor that gives them an entrepreneurial spirit. Membership of a network also assists in the opportunity recognition process. Ozgen & Baron (2007) suggest that individuals may gain information about new business ventures from their mentors, business networks and professional associations. For individuals who have been entrepreneurs before, this would help them identify new business ideas more easily (Ucbasaran, Westhead & Wright 2009). Networks could be formal ones such as that of colleagues sharing the same work function at the employer’s premises. Another possibility is a group that meets informally after

Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen - Essay Example ("Pride and Prejudice." 123HelpMe.com. 27 Feb 2009). Jane Austin received her formal education from her father. Her novels were initially published secretly. She never got a chance to live in south of England and had no connections with the literary community of London. Even though her work received optimistic reviews, she was not a famous novelist during her lifetime. The essay is an attempt to bring out the characters of the novel and to analyse them in the light of humour and satire which make up the novel. The opening lines in the novel, "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife." Pride and Prejudice, ch.1 (1813), is a statement which is true to this day. This statement brings out the intelligence of Austen as an author. She has asserted that the subject of the novel will be courtship and marriage and she has based the hilarious tone of the novel with a simple subject to work out and to speak sharply of. She has geared up the reader to guess whether it is a husband in search of a wife, or a woman in pursuit of a husband. Austen's authority of delicate prejudice and shrewd wisdom is exposed in Pride and Prejudice; she is able to express such a multifaceted message using a simple, but witty style. (http://www.online-literature.com/austen/prideprejudice/) The theme of the story is fundamentally an assessment of the obstructions which an eligible female encounters when she is on the look out for a prospective husband. Jane Austen reveals her mind through the immortal character of Elizabeth Bennet, who is the central character of the novel. Therefore with a reference to the term personality, there is a belief that Austen more or less resembles Elizabeth Bennet. This novel ends on a happy note. The novel emphasizes the point that pride and prejudice can be overcome. "Hence, nothing in Austin's novel is pointless or distracting from the main theme--pride and prejudice." ("Pride and Prejudice." 123HelpMe.com. 27 Feb 2009). Character analysis: Elizabeth Bennet, the second daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet is the most striking character especially with her freely displayed wit and independent thinking and she is never attractive to readers but when she asserts herself against the arrogant Lady Catherine she raises a question of identity in the minds of the readers. She does everything with a pinch of thoughtfulness and simplicity especially when she refuses to reveal her age when it is demanded or even when she argues that younger sisters need not wait until their older sisters are married. (http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pride/canalysis.html) Elizabeth is always in conflict with the noble Mr. Darcy, and both incorrectly perceive each other because of their pride and its ensuing prejudice. The novel is in fact is about the challenges of the heart and at the same it pertains to the ways in which one can be educated. Darcy at first cannot visualize that there is anyone who deserves his attention in the constricted, simple world in which he detects himself. On the other hand Elizabeth is able to look only at his vanity and arrogance and is offended by his superior airs. Elizabeth and Darcy fight through their wits and of the society, till such time when Darcy's marriage proposal surprises Elizabeth. She rejects Darcy's offer and this

Mass Media And The Public Opinion Problem Media Essay

Mass Media And The Public Opinion Problem Media Essay The war on Iraq is drawing to a close, but over the last six years, it has eclipsed the news agenda. Ever since the Gulf war ended in 1991, the United states and Britain have been waging an undeclared secret war on Iraq for twelve years1. The US led war in Iraq began in March 2003. Their intent was to abolish the Iraqi society allowing them to command Iraqs huge oil reserves. This war received unparalleled media coverage on television and in the press. News networks spent significant amounts of money in situating reporters and photographers in Iraq. These reporters spent time with the coalition armed forces on the front line where they were able to provide live coverage of events as they happened. A number of consequences followed. Watchdog groups raised issues about the sheer quantity of war coverage, the nature of that coverage and the independence and objectivity of those so-called embedded journalists2. Clearly, it became important to know not only what the public felt about the actual war, but also how the public received information and formed their opinion about the war. Radio had World War II. Television had the Vietnam War. Cable TV had the Gulf War. Now, the Internet may have the U.S. war with Iraq3. In this modern day war, reporters with laptops and digital cameras reported directly from battlefields. Cameras were placed at key locations for live online feeds 24 hours a day. Interactive, 3-D maps updated online graphs of troop movements, casualties and weapons used4. The Internet is capable of providing so much more, with unregulated and unbiased reports/opinions of the war. It is also capable of connecting people with like minded opinions for discourse. Coupled with other semiotic advantages of the web (instant, cost-effective), the information explosion of the Internet has led to a worldwide crises in the television industry. This crisis is responsible for transforming the creation, distribution and consumption of content. As audiences make a move from television to the Internet (for unbiased war coverage), the television industry has struggled to keep up with new technologies, to reinvent itself, to formulate new formats, to find consumers on new platforms, to cut costs and create new business models such as providing free online access to shows on their networks. This shift in mass audience attention from television to the Internet will have a large impact on the media landscape. Youre combining the speed of television with the depth of print, says Mitch Gelman, executive producer of CNN.com. This could define how [the] future [is] covered. 5 Research Question Does the explosion in Internet media further diversify and fragment the media landscape, reducing the influence of biased media on public opinion? Thesis Statement Even though the Internet is a privilege that is enjoyed only in first world countries and television and radio is still the primary source of information in most developing nations, an apparent bias in television news media has led audiences to seek more objective information from the world wide web because television news is filled with selective viewpoints while the interactivity, diversity and information capacity available on the Internet has the potential to allow the public to form a more knowledgeable opinion about politics and their government. Significance The significance of Internet news, forums and online political discussions as an information source is the ability to diversify the type of news people receive, and improve their ability to check the actions of elected officials. As opposed to news coverage on television which, filled with reports of vague truths, incomplete facts, inaccurate rumors and selective viewpoints, is determined to sell the war. Thus people are turning to online news sources in great numbers, to get a more balanced, objective and realistic perspective. Television and the Internet are pulling in opposite directions, and hence this study is important to understand this growing trend. Hypothesis This research paper claims the theory of a shift of audience attention in an information era that now includes new un-monopolized and un-biased media sources such as the Internet and hence a shift to a more diversified public opinion. This paper will bring forward the relationship between media usage and support or opposition to the Iraq war. The claims put forth in this paper will be based on the Pew Internet American Life Project Iraq War survey, March 20-25, 2003. Purpose The purpose of this research is to show that public opinion is directly dependent upon what source they get their news information from. The round-the-clock convenience of the Internet and the centralization of un-regulated and un-biased information on the web can cut information costs for citizens while still providing ample political and government information6. Thus the goal of this paper is to show that television media does not continue to exert an effect on public opinion as the impact of the Internet has made opinion more diverse leading to a crises in the television news industry. Statement of scope and limitations The scope of this research is to show how the US television media have altered facts, reported several inaccurate stories and never acknowledged that this has been more of an invasion than a war. As a result of this apparent bias in television news media, audiences are seeking more objective information from the world wide web. This paper will not cover how the Internet is a privilege that is enjoyed only in first world countries and television and radio is still the primary source of information, shaping public opinion, in these developing nations. Also, this paper will not cover how most television shows are streamed illegally online and has led to a decline in network revenue. Outline of argument Television media coverage of news events is part of the free-market system in the U.S. where a number of elite groups can influence the type of coverage given to an issue and who gets heard7. This becomes a troubling factor in the case of news covering foreign affairs because the public has fewer sources of information to compare against. This has increased the importance of the Internet as a news source. As the television media is becoming concentrated in the hands of a few, it heightens the possibility that the public will have trouble getting both sides of a report. So far, the Internet has resisted the trend toward a singular message. Opposing viewpoints and information not available from other news sources flourish on the Web. For example, a 2003 Pew Internet and American Life survey found that the majority of respondents reported using the Internet for political news because of convenience and dissatisfaction with television media8. Literature Review about 50 per cent of the population now believes that Iraq was responsible for the attack on the World Trade Centre. This has happened since September 2002. In fact, after the September 11 attack, the figure was about 3 per cent. Government-media propaganda has managed to raise that to about 50 per cent. Now if people genuinely believe that Iraq has carried out major terrorist attacks against the United States and is planning to do so again, well, in that case people will support the war. Noam Chomsky, Iraq is a trial run9 Introduction To explore the influence of both the Internet and the consolidation of television media on public opinion, this paper uses data and statistical analysis from surveys done by Pew Internet and American Life project entitled The Internet And The Iraq War. These surveys are consistent with other writers such as Herman and Chomsky (Manufacturing consent and Iraq Is A Trial Run), Shapiro and Dempsey (What moves public opinion) and Macye and Steven (Embedding The Truth) among others also mentioned in this research paper. Even though some of the articles mentioned in this paper were published before the Iraq war, their detailed analysis of the effect of media on the public opinion still has modern day ramifications for this growing shift from television to the Internet. Hence the survey data along with several consistent articles in this research paper tests the theory of media influence on public opinion in a digital age that now includes new forms of media such as the Internet, as well as increased biassnes of the television industry. An inherent bias Experts have long agreed that news coverage has a very overwhelming influence on public opinion. Analyzing surveys and polls of public opinion on issues regarding the Iraq war, Page, Shapiro and Dempsey (1987) find that change in public opinion is attributable to the source of news media forming the opinion. Public opinion towards the Iraq war in 2003 provides a case study under very unusual circumstances than other wars. Radio had World War II. Television had the Vietnam War. Cable TV had the Gulf War. Now, the Internet may have the U.S. war with Iraq10. Under these very different circumstances of newer technology, Page et al have found that, we might expect media coverage of the war to have a direct effect on public opinion. Among experts arguing that news media are systematically biased, no other has been as influential as Herman and Chomsky. In Manufacturing Consent, they advanced a propaganda model that suggests that the societal purpose of the media is to inculcate and defend the economic, social, and political agenda of privileged groups that dominate the domestic society and the state11 (298). While trying to shed light on the relationship between politics and media, this work is often taken as evidence of a biassnes in the news media. Using multivariate logistic regression, surveys done by Pew Internet American Life Project in 2003, which seem to agree with the Herman and Chomskys analysis, found that television media coverage of the Iraq war shaped public opinion. Respondents who watched cable or network television as a primary source of news about the war, about thirty million Americans, were statistically more likely to support the Iraq war. But, respondents who read online war news were significantly less likely to support the war13. The Internet has become a rich repository for satirical and subversive alternate visions. With the US campaign against Iraq, a unique form of resistance is emerging: not so much on the streets as through the electronic networks of the Internet.14 A former reporter turned media critic Bernard Goldberg writes, There are lots of reasons fewer people are watching network news, and one of them, Im more convinced than ever, is that our viewers simply dont trust us. And for good reason. The old argument that the networks and other media elites have a liberal bias is so blatantly true that its hardly worth discussing anymore.15 Shanto Iyengar, in The Accessibility Bias In Politics, argues that when the networks make a certain event more accessible by giving it extensive coverage, viewers automatically give that issue greater importance and use their opinions concerning that issue to a greater range when thinking about their country at war. During the Iraq war coverage individuals were fed a steady diet yellow journalism.16 Yellow journalism, such as images of blown up military vehicles and downed helicopters, capture the attention of an audience much more than pictures of everyday mundane events. The practice of looking for the next big event, whether it comes from a suicide bomber or from an ambush on coalition troops, convinces Americans to believe that the war is far from over. Television news programs have sensationalized the war and discarded objectivity in favor of their own opinion of the conflict. A reporter for the International Herald Tribune, Michiko Kakutani observed, Network producers have turn ed real-time reporting of the 2003 war in Iraq into prime time reality TV entertainment. Rather than presenting the real horror of war.17 Shift to the Internet In three different polls, an aggregate sample of three thousand respondents was asked, Where do you tend to get most of your news? The options offered were newspapers and magazines or TV and radio. Overall, nineteen percent said their primary news source was print media, while eighty percent said it was electronic18. These results are consistent with the findings of Kull and Ramsay, in Misperceptions, the Media, and the Iraq War, who mention that traditional news sources are to blame for misperceptions regarding the reasons to invade Iraq. People who depend on the Internet as their main news source, who tend to be younger and better educated than rest of the public and is roughly 68 percent of the American population, expressed unfavorable and analytical opinions of traditional news sources and press performance19. These audiences, about 6 out of 10,also say that news organizations do not care about the people they report on, and fifty three percent, of that number, believe that news organizations are too critical of America20. In the 2003 surveys these respondents mentioned they got news of the Iraq war from the web because you dont get all the news and information you want from traditional new sources such as the daily news paper or the network TV news.21 They also said getting information online is more convenient22 The Internet strips away one of the most despicable beliefs of journalism the ridiculous idea that journalists are fair-minded truth seekers out for nothing more than a good story.23 Due to Internet journalism -which has broken the monopoly of the status quo-, Mark Poster, in The Second Media Age, says we are shifting back towards an era of open discourse, much similar to the old days when various newspapers with various political connections, competed for the publics attention.24 He goes on to explain that the interactivity, diversity, flexibility, and information capacity available on the Internet have the capability to allow the public to become more knowledgeable about politics and government. Its hard to be unbiased Over the last six years of the Iraq war coverage, we have become used to watching journalists report from battlefields. These embedded journalists live, sleep, eat and face danger with the troops. Spending so much time with them, the journalists get to know the troops as individuals. Hence the reports are humanised. But these much praised reports of war overlook the fact that these embeds are embedded with one side only. This in no way is a balanced perspective25. A very pessimistic John Simpson of the BBC says: I dont want to spend my whole time with people to whom I owe my safety, my protection, my food, my transport, and then be expected to be completely honest about them, because theres always that sense that youre betraying a trust.26 In todays style of non stop news coverage, it is very hard for a report to be unbiased. News programs today are made to grasp the attention of hyperactive and impatient audience (since there are other channels to choose from). Usually, every television news report is told in less than two minutes. This results in a great loss of detail, and thats where the TV reporters personal bias comes into play: he or she decides what parts of a story to include or omit. As many people have pointed out, broadcast news is dangerous, not because of whats reported, but because of what is not reported. Fortunately the Internet is becoming a more reliable source of daily news, and it helps fill in the gaps. Anyone looking for current news, can gather more information in five minutes on the Internet than they can get in an hour of watching television. Conclusion The television media culture has become arrogant, often ignorant and mindless, but not quite so dominant as it used to be. Specifically, television news is no the same anymore. The Internet, with its hundreds of news sources, some professional reports and many others not so professional, is doing to television news what television news did to newspapers a generation ago, steadily stealing its audience. Methodology see >> http://www.abdn.ac.uk/sociology/notes06/Level4/SO4530/Assigned-Readings/Seminar%2011.2.pdf Bibliography/Footnotes 1.(see John Pilgers The Secret War on Iraq). 2. The Media Workers Against the War and the Indymedia network media War coverage. wiki 3. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2003-03-18-iraq-internet_x.htm 4. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/2889171.stm 5. http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_24-3-2003_pg6_1 6. http://prq.sagepub.com/content/56/2/175.short 7. http://search2.scholarsportal.info.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/ids70/view_record.php?id=7recnum=2log=from_resSID=986263f7ea97c6532362216a8e2aee36mark_id=search:7:76,0,4 8. http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2003/PIP_Iraq_War_Report.pdf.pdf 9. http://www.zcommunications.org/iraq-is-a-trial-run-by-noam-chomsky 10. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2003-03-18-iraq-internet_x.htm 11. Manufacturing Consent 12. http://www.media-studies.ca/articles/war_propaganda.htm 13. http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2003/PIP_Iraq_War_Report.pdf.pdf 14. http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/dwhayes/iraq_mpsa08.pdf 15. http://www.amazon.com/Bias-Insider-Exposes-Media-Distort/dp/0895261901 16. http://ijpor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/2/1/1.pdf [oxford journals] >> http://ijpor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/2/1/1.pdf 17. Michiko Kakutani. The Ultimate Reality TV Show: Coverage on the War in Iraq. At Issue: Reality TV. Ed. Karen F. Balkin. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2003. August 2004. 25 July 2010. . 18. http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2003/PIP_Iraq_War_Report.pdf.pdf 19. Lbid, page 20.lbid 21.lbid 22. lbid 23. http://www.lewrockwell.com/greenhut/greenhut34.html 24. http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/9541_011389ch01.pdf 25. see downloads dooley 26. http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2010/mar/15/john-simpson-bbc-murdoch-journalism -http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/apr/18/embedded-war-reporting-iraq-afghanistn

The Wicked Witch and Snow White Essay -- essays papers

The Wicked Witch and Snow White Edith Wharton presents two memorable characters in her novel, Ethan Frome. The reader is presented with Mattie Silver who is young, and good-natured, and Zeena Frome, who is a bitter hypochondriac seven years her husband’s senior. Upon a first inspection, Zeena Frome and Mattie Silver of Edith Wharton’s Ethan Frome seem to be extreme opposites in every respect, but upon closer scrutiny, one finds though they are indeed different in character, though they eventually share great similarities. Zeena and Mattie’s differences in appearance and character, but similarity of fate, all contribute to the theme of the novel which is that one cannot escape the social class one is born in. Edith Wharton first describes Zeena in Chapter II as a woman who is but 37 years old, yet appears more elderly than her biological age. Zeena is associated with the dimness and grey of the winter landscape of Ethan Frome. There is no beauty or warmth coupled with the character of Zeena: â€Å"Against the dark background of the kitchen she stood up tall and angular, one hand drawing a quilted counterpane to her flat breast†¦ The light†¦ drew out of the darkness her puckered throat and the projecting wrist of the hand that clutched the quilt, deepening fantastically the hollows and prominences of her high-boned face under its ring of crimping pins.† Mattie Silver, on the other hand, is associated with what little light and warmth there is in the cold setting of the novel. Wharton describes Mattie as â€Å"taller, fuller, more womanly in shape and motion.† She goes to relate Mattie’s appearance on that same page: â€Å"She held the light†¦ and it drew out with the same distinctness her slim young throat and th... ...an was suffocated with the sense of well-being.† Edith Wharton presents a stark contrast of the feelings Zeena and Mattie inspire in the man they care most for. Zeena inspires irritation, awkwardness, and antipathy while Mattie promotes â€Å"eloquence,† and feelings of â€Å"well-being.† Wharton was an avid social critic. She believed that it was difficult, if not impossible, to escape from the social and economic class one was born in. None of her other novels that were social critiques such as The House of Mirth, or Custom of the Country, portray this belief as sharply as Ethan Frome. Although Mattie was a beautiful, friendly young woman, she was destined to the same fate that Zeena was destined to because she had been born into the same social-economic class. Bibliography: WORKS CITED Wharton, Edith. Ethan Frome. Evanston, Ill: McDougal Little, 1997.

How to Be a Good Teacher

Great English Teachers What are the characteristics of a good teacher of English? The traits range from great teaching and management strategies to a good attitude. Top Characteristics for Teachers There are 15 characteristics of effective teachers that range from having high expectations to being flexible and imaginative. These 15 characteristics can be placed into two categories: management and instructional techniques and personal traits. To have strong classroom management and instructional techniques, an English teacher needs to try a variety of techniques to find the ones that work for him or her. Instructional Techniques English teachers need to teach reading, writing, viewing, listening, and speaking. These are five distinct areas, and each has its own set of benchmarks and indicators. Simply put, English teachers have a great deal of content to juggle in the classroom. The list of indicators for their content is quite long. They need to be knowledgeable of grammar, vocabulary, writing, literary elements, great novels, researching techniques, speech strategies, etc. In addition to being a master of content, teachers need to have a large repertoire of teaching strategies. Direct instruction, collaborative learning, and the jigsaw strategy, are just a few techniques that effective teachers use in the classroom. Variety is the key. So, the English teacher must be flexible and willing to try a variety of strategies to see what works best with his or her students. Management Techniques Good English teachers must have excellent classroom management techniques. If teachers cannot manage their students successfully, very little learning will occur in the classroom. With the No Child Left Behind Act and current state policy, it is important that students make gains in their learning every year. For young teachers, classroom management is usually a struggle. New teachers need to be willing to seek out seasoned teachers to mentor them on how to handle the classroom properly and to try different classroom management strategies. Personality Traits Usually, the three most important personality traits are a flexible approach, a caring attitude, and a sense of humor. There are, of course, other personality traits that enable teachers to become great teachers. However, in the current torrent of change in education, a teacher needs to be flexible to help a student. It also helps to be able to laugh and to keep smiling in this climate of change. It is very important that students feel that their teachers care about them. They need to feel safe in a supportive learning environment because this may be the only safe place that some children have. A safe, caring learning environment will help students to work to their true potential. Last, teachers need to have a sense of humor. So many things go wrong every day. It is important to be able to laugh and to keep going. The students need a happy teacher, not an angry one. The characteristics of a good teacher of English include many traits and strategies. English teachers need to do their best in implementing techniques in the classroom to help our nation's children reach their learning potential Think back to your school days for a moment, who were your favorite teachers? Which ones did you learn more from and why? The chances are that they were ones who made your lessons â€Å"come alive†. Engage you in your lesson as opposed to the â€Å"talk and chalk† variety! Whilst having a sound academic background and knowledge of your subject is one thing, having the ability to relate to your students and convey your message in understandable, motivational terms is quite another. This means not only being able to relate to your learners but being able to adapt your material to suit their needs, and put it across in the most effective (personable? ) form, creating a positive, supportive learning environment. Teaching a Language Having been a teacher trainer for many years I have little time for the teacher who delivers the same lesson verbatim, year after year, without considering their individual students’ needs and learner types, or those whose ego is so large that they are unable to relate effectively to their students. To my mind, teaching a language requires different skills to teaching other subjects like History or Math. We don’t learn a language by talking about it; we learn a language by talking in it! Once a teacher has presented language, it is the students who should speak and use the language (as it is they who need the practice), and not the teacher talking the highest percentage of time – hence the term TTT -Teacher Taking Time. Language teachers also need to â€Å"rough tune† their language, speaking in terms that are slightly above the level of the learner, rather than over simplify (thus providing a false model) or bombard them with meta-language. Core Characteristics Carl Rogers, an American psychologist suggested there are three core teacher characteristics to help create an effective learning environment. †¢Respect: Being positive and non judgmental in regards to another person †¢Empathy: Being able to see things from another person’s point of view †¢Authenticity: Being yourself without egoistic barriers or hiding behind a job title These three qualities a far more likely to induce a more positive learning environment, where students are more inclined to take risks and take responsibility for their own learning. Communication between student and teacher becomes more open and honest and therefore a stronger bond emerges, based on mutual respect. These qualities should not be â€Å"clothes† that a teacher puts on in the classroom. They have to be genuine intentions. A good teacher is one who not only has knowledge of their subject but has the personality to convey it in engaging, motivational terms. Therefore demonstration and participation rather than explanation is often more effective. In short: An effective language teacher is one that cares more about their students’ learning than they do about their own teaching! Top 10 Tips for Teachers Teachers are often placed into an awkward and stressful situation, not really sure of their authority and sometimes not even placed with veteran teachers who are much help. These tips can aid student teachers as they begin their first teaching assignments. Please note: these are not suggestions for how to approach the students but instead for how to most effectively succeed in your new teaching environment. 1. Be On Time Punctuality is very important in the ‘real world'. If you are late, you will definitely NOT start out on the right foot with your cooperating teacher. Even worse, if you arrive after a class has begun which you are supposed to be teaching, you are placing that teacher and yourself in an awkward situation. 2. Dress Appropriately As a teacher, you are a professional and you are supposed to dress accordingly. There is nothing wrong with over dressing during your student teaching assignments. The clothes do help lend you an air of authority, especially if you look awfully young. Further, your dress lets the coordinating teacher know of your professionalism and dedication to your assignment. 3. Be Flexible Remember that the coordinating teacher has pressures placed upon them just as you have your own pressures to deal with. If you normally teach only 3 classes and the coordinating teacher asks that you take on extra classes one day because he has an important meeting to attend, look at this as your chance to get even further experience while impressing your dedication to your coordinating teacher. 4. Follow the School Rules This might seem obvious to some but it is important that you do not break school rules. For example, if it is against the rules to chew gum in class, then do not chew it yourself. If the campus is ‘smoke-free', do not light up during your lunch period. This is definitely not professional and would be a mark against you when it comes time for your coordinating teacher and school to report on your abilities and actions. 5. Plan Ahead If you know you will need copies for a lesson, do not wait until the morning of the lesson to get them completed. Many schools have procedures that MUST be followed for copying to occur. If you fail to follow these procedures you will be stuck without copies and will probably look unprofessional at the same time. 6. Befriend the Office Staff This is especially important if you believe that you will be staying in the area and possibly trying for a job at the school where you are teaching. These people's opinions of you will have an impact on whether or not you are hired. They can also make your time during student teaching much easier to handle. Don't underestimate their worth. 7. Maintain Confidentiality Remember that if you are taking notes about students or classroom experiences to turn in for grades, you should either not use their names or change them to protect their identities. You never know who you are teaching or what their relationship might be to your instructors and coordinators. 8. Don't Gossip It might be tempting to hang out in the teacher lounge and indulge in gossip about fellow teachers. However, as a student teacher this would be a very risky choice. You might say something you could regret later. You might find out information that is untrue and clouds your judgement. You might even offend someone without realizing it. Remember, these are teachers you could be working with again some day in the future. 9. Be Professional With Fellow Teachers Do not interrupt other teachers' classes without an absolutely good reason. When you are speaking with your coordinating teacher or other teachers on campus, treat them with respect. You can learn a lot from these teachers, and they will be much more likely to share with you if they feel that you are genuinely interested in them and their experiences. 10. Don't Wait to the Last Minute to Call in Sick You will probably get sick at some point during your student teaching and will need stay home for the day. You must remember that the regular teacher will have to take over the class during your absence. If you wait until the last minute to call in, this could leave them in an awkward bind making them look bad to the students. Call as soon as you believe you will not be able to make it to class.

Invitational Leadership Essay

Introduction Leadership, and the study of it, has its commencement in the early civilizations. Ancient rulers, pharaohs, emperors and biblical patriarchs have one thing in common – leadership. Although scholars have been studying this phenomenon for almost two centuries, numerous definitions and theories abound throughout. However, enough similarities exist so as to define â€Å"leadership† as an effort of influence and the power to induce compliance (Wren, 1995). Leadership is a process through which an individual influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. This definition of leadership is relatively similar to that of Northouse’s (2007,p.3) And the definition of a leader stipulated by Peter Drucker is someone who has followers. The capacity to influence others is dependent on the power detained. The leader’s attitudes would definitely determine the level of productivity from his employees. A Task Orientation or Directive Behaviour reflects the concern of a leader for the actual task at hand whereas Employee Orientation or Supportive Behaviours reflects how much a leader is concerned for the people around him, providing support and encouragement for them. Concurrently, different theories have been developed for the field of leadership but we would be showing more attention to the Invitational Leadership theory. The research on the effects of Invitational Education Theory (IET) in the educational administrative process is relatively new as compared to other theories pertaining to leadership. Invitational Leadership has a different dimension from the standard theories of leadership that emphasized the process of influencing others through the use of power to an alternative leadership style that promotes collaboration and show consideration and respect for individuals in the educational system. This study comprises of two parts. Firstly, we would see the theoretical introduction of the Invitational Leadership, followed a brief comparison of the theory with other leadership theories possessing more or less the same characteristics and finally, in what ways the Invitational Leadership is more suitable to the educational community. Secondly, we would focus on what the invitational style provides in response to the demands of the school sector. Besides, we would see to what extent the invitational leadership is applied to my profession through examples drawn from my past experiences. ————————————————- 1. Theoretical part Invitational Theory Purkey (1992, p.5) defines Invitational Leadership asa theory which â€Å"is a collection of assumptions that seek to explain phenomena and provide a means of intentionally summoning people to realise their relatively boundless potential in all areas of worthwhile human endeavour† Invitational Theory is a mode of professional practice that summons the environment and all relationships formed in educational and human service organizations. It is a process for communicating caring and appropriate message intended to invite forth the realisation of human potential. It is also a way for identifying and changing those institutional and relational forces that defeat and destroy potential. Communication is vital for all social relationships or integration. Schools, as a social institution, send out complex message systems that continuously inform people of their worth, ability, and power to direct themselves. The concept of â€Å"invitation† derives from the effort provided by those who seek to communicate ideas. This involves shaping, moulding and changing. The word invite is a derivation of the Latin word invite. It probably began as vito, which means to avoid or shun. In early Roman society, vito was used to express fear of encroachment by other tribes, and to forbid their entry into Rome. As Rome became a dominant force, its citizens felt more secure and opened their borders to the world. In time, the prefix in- meaning â€Å"without† or â€Å"not,† was added, and the word invite, meaning â€Å"to receive politely,† became common and developed into invite. So by definition, an invitation is a purposive and generous act by which the invit er seeks to enroll others in the vision set forth in the invitation. From this we derive the term Invitational Leadership (Purkey & Siegel, 2002, p212). From an invitational viewpoint, individuals possess the characteristics of being able, valuable and responsible. As such, they are to be treated accordingly. Conversely, we observe a transformation from the appellations used: from â€Å"motivate,† â€Å"shape,† â€Å"reinforce,† â€Å"make,† â€Å"enhance,† â€Å"build,† and â€Å"empower† people to that of â€Å"offer,† â€Å"propose,† â€Å"present,† â€Å"encourage,† â€Å"consider,† and â€Å"summon cordially.† Similarly, in the school context, the invitational leader is the one who summons associates to higher levels of functioning and presents them with the opportunity to participate in the construction of something of mutual benefit. Ultimately, we find that this â€Å"something† is a procedure to create a better environment and a way to eliminate inequalities. Invitational Leadership offer a new perspective, an involvement for positive social change. It acknowledges our potential, our integrity, our interdependence and our responsibility to do good. Moreover, a central element in many definitions of leadership is that there is a process of influence. Leithwood et al (1999, p.6) say that â€Å"influence †¦ seems to be a necessary part of most conceptions of leadership.† Yulk (2002, p.) explains this influence process: â€Å"Most definitions of leadership reflect the assumption that it involves a social influence process whereby intentional influence is exerted by one person [or group] over other people [or groups] to structure the activities and relationships in a group or organisation.† Yulk’s use of ‘person’ or ‘group’ indicates that leadership may be exercised by individuals as well as teams. Additionally, this opinion is shared by Harris (2002) and Leithwood (2001) who both advocate distributed leadership as an alternative to traditional top-down leadership models. Invitational leadership as a model of influence It can be agreed that leadership involves influence and that it may be exercised by anyone in an organisation. In addition, Cuban (1988,p.193) points out to leadership as an influence process. â€Å"Leadership then refers to people who bend the motivations and actions of others to achieving certain goals; it implies taking initiatives and risks.† This opinion demonstrates that the process of influence is focused as it is intended to lead to specific outcomes. Furthermore, this notion is reinforced by Fidler (1997, p.25) : â€Å"followers are influenced towards goal achievement.† Eventually, a similar concept is used by Stoll and Fink (1996), that of ‘invitational’ leadership explaining how leaders function in schools. â€Å"Leadership is about communicating invitational messages to individuals and groups with whom leaders interact in order to build and act on a shared and evolving vision of enhanced educational experiences for pupils.† (p.109) At this point, I agree to what Stoll and Fink (1996) said; the role of the leader, in the school, is to work together with his collaborators towards making the institution an inclusive school which provides a good education to all pupils, irrespective of their varying abilities. Further to this, communication should be at the base of all decision making to arrive at a consensus between the different stakeholders. As it is stated in the School Management Manual, the Rector should â€Å"run the school in close collaboration with the Deputy Rector.† The Rector or the Deputy Rector, should be open to new ideas put forward by staff or pupils. The internal communication (morning assembly, form period, meeting with students’ representatives, teaching staff, head of Department etc.) of the school should be an open platform where leaders create a conviviality atmosphere among each individuals, therefore, inviting others to get engaged in the progression of the school. As we have compared the close relationship of Invitational Leadership as being a model of influence, equally, the Invitational Leadership Theory reflects a transformational dimension. Transformational Leadership enhanced the motivation, morale and performance of follower’s through a variety of mechanisms. These comprise connecting the follower’s sense of identity and self to the mission and the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that inspires them; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strength and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align them with tasks that optimize their performance. Similarly, the invitational leader invites the followers by communicating to them the mission and goal of the organisation and by accepting the individual personality. As the leader himself is a role model in displaying invitational qualities, he reinforces these qualities among his/her followers. Becoming an Invitational Leader necessitates that a leader become more consciously aware of his or her self and, by so doing, takes responsibility of how he or she defines that self. If we distinguish ourselves to be lacking in some fundamental leadership quality, then assuredly we will fail to influence others to join our cause. Furthermore, the invitational leadership enclose these servant types of values : excellence, caring, justice, and faith. Review of current literature supports the need for a change in leadership in order to adequately meet the needs of current educational institutions. Becoming an invitational leader â€Å"How can I gain the cooperation of those in my environment so that effectiveness and productivity increase and that our group function more smoothly and effectively?† The only way is by inviting, showing trust, understanding and respect (Purkey, Siegel, 2002). Intimidation and coercion, commonly used approaches, are not effective and eventually will prove to be counter-productive. They believe that there is only one motivation inside humans and that is an internal drive and desire to realise one’s own potential. In short we all want to be more, to self-actualise and to put our talents to good use by committing to something beyond ourselves. This can only be achieved by volunteered and not by pressure. Hence, I can affirm the more leaders are viewed as caring, respectful and supportive, the greater their chances of emancipating the talents and energies of their associates. Those in authority must first begin by making others feel valued if they hope to gain respect and cooperation in return. The first stage toward effective leadership is a wise, rooted sense of self. This means a commitment to find one’s own core values. The authors, Purkey & Siegel (2002) put forward that one cannot empower others without first empowering oneself. These two scholars present various ideas for cultivating all aspects of life from physical and psychological to the spiritual and intellectual. Furthermore, the leader has to present a vision of what a successful organization looks like, to set the proper environment in order to move people to embrace the organisation’s vision and to take on the individual and collective responsibility for the successes and failures of the organization. This would result in a group of self-actualizing individuals, each committed to the purpose and to one another in a supporting environment. Likewise, the school’s atmosphere should be conducive enough so as to inspire people connected to the school to be committed among themselves. Like indicated initially, the leader, that is the Rector or headmaster of the school, is the one to establish the point of contact between the administration, teaching and non-teaching staff and the students, to create avenues that the personnel would follow. Consequently, the opportunity given to each individual would unleash the potential that reside in them. Similarly, each one would adopt an invitational approach as they are constantly exposed to it in their everyday situation at school. The ability to challenge the people you lead to perform high quality will only continue over time if the leader has developed his invitational side as well. As stipulated in the School Management Manual of the Ministry of Education, Culture & Human Resources, the Rector, as the leader â€Å"builds and accompanies his teams, providing them with the required support and motivation, listening to their views and their problems and valuing their effort, support and contribution.† Walter Bennis, one of our more dynamic thinkers on leadership, has defined a leader is one who is guided by an â€Å"exciting and specific dream and who enrols others in his or her vision.† (Purkey, Siegel; 2002) thus, by providing support and motivation, school’s leaders enroll others by summoning them cordially to realise their potential. Furthermore, support for the importance of values was provided by Stoll and Fink (1996) in their study of leadership in education. They affirmed that successful leaders rely upon a strong set of values to guide their decision-making. We can contrast the decision-making process to the Participative Leadership which is defined by Leithwood et al. (2002) as a leadership style which â€Å"assumes that the decision-making processes of the group ought to be central focus for leaders† (p.12). Invitational Education Theory (IET) As stated by the author of Fundamentals of Invitational Education, the focus of Invitational Leadership in education is on the message transmitted by people, places, policies, programs, and processes (Purkey, 2008, p.7). Invitational education is based on three fundamental ideas Purkey, W.W., & Novak, J.M. (1996).: the democratic ethos, the perceptual tradition, and self-concept theory. The democratic ethos put emphasize on â€Å"deliberate dialogue and mutual respect as people work together to construct the character, practices and institutions that promote a fulfilling shared life.†(p.9) In this democratic style of leadership, it implies that whoever is concerned or affected by decisions should have a say in those decisions. The perceptual tradition states that events are always seen through the individual and cultural filters people use. Thus an important aspect of the inviting approach is to understand and validate the meaningfulness of people’s perceptions and to w ork with these perceptions to construct shared purposes.(p.10) Self-concept is the image people construct of who they are and how they fit in the world. â€Å"This system of personal beliefs is maintained, protected and by the choices the individual makes.† (p.10). Invitational education is a mode of functioning by which people are cordially, creatively and consistently summoned to realise their potential. As mentioned earlier, its focus is on the messages transmitted. However, the messages that are exchanged are never on neutral basis as they carry positive or negative, inviting or disinviting connotation. There are four fundamental values, what we call principles, which give Invitational Leaders direction and purpose. Together, these four principles form a basic set of guiding beliefs. These are respect, trust, optimism, and intentionality. Therefore the four principles take the form of propositions that offer a perspective for addressing, evaluation and modifying the total school environment. Purkey, W. W.& Novak, J. M.; (2008) testify that this standpoint allows Rectors or educators to assume an â€Å"inviting stance,† which is a focused frame-work for sustained action. Respect People are valuable, able, and responsible and should be treated accordingly. Respect is an important aspect in Invitational Leadership. It provides a new vision based on the process of summoning people cordially to move in more democratic, creative, and productive directions through non-coercive means. A democratic society emphasizes the inherent worth of all people, believes in their self-directing power, and stressed the importance of personal and social accountability. Invitational schools do the same. Purkey, W. W.& Novak, J. M. (2008) stipulates that responsibilities that are shared based on mutual respect and expectations of positive outcomes results in a cooperative relationship that recognizes each â€Å"person’s ability to accept, reject, negotiate, or hold in abeyance the messages sent to them.† (p.12) Respect is demonstrated in courteous behaviours as civility, politeness and common courtesy. Waterman and Peters (1988), in their book In Search of Excellence, reported that a special characteristic of highly successful companies is the courteous and respectful behaviours of their employees. They are â€Å"good listeners, pay attention to their customers, are courteous and treat people as adults. Respect is one of eight major characteristics that distinguish excellent companies.† Summing up, respect is important in Invitational Leadership because it is the quality that enables leaders to be a beneficial presence that has the ability to take a respectful stance toward colleagues – literally inviting others into a mutually beneficial relationship. Trust Education is a cooperative, collaborative activity. Invitational education is based on the fundamental interdependence of human beings. To establish trustworthy pattern, time and effort are necessary. Trustworthy patterns of interaction depend on people who demonstrate the following quality: reliability, genuineness, truthfulness, intent and competence. Intention The process is the product of making. A decision to purposely act in a certain way, to achieve and carry out a set of goals (Day et.al, 2001, p.34). Is defined as knowing what we intend to bring about as well as how we intend it to happen gives clarity and direction to our work (Stillion and Siegel, 2OO5, p15). Optimism People possess untapped potential in all areas of humans endeavour. Invitational educators are committed to the continuous appreciation and growth of all involved in the educative process (Day et. al, 2001, p. 34). ————————————————- 2. Invitational Leadership in practice in the educational community The focus of this study is to examine the invitational leadership style to verify if it provides the necessary skills needed in today’s educational organisations. In response to the increased need for excellent management and guidance, many leadership models have been planned and implemented to meet the demanding needs of the educational sector. Following this emptiness in the educational community, the invitational leadership was introduced in 2002 by Purkey and Siegel. Stillion and Siegel (2005) summed up the idea behind this new leadership style, â€Å"Purkey †¦ having studied human behaviour for four decades, proposed that leaders must take an invitational stance in dealing with others and in developing themselves† (p.4) According to Purkey and Novak (1996), IET is a model of practice: it adopts a systematic approach in the educational development and it provides policies and strategies for making schools more inviting. Major challenges that the school staff usually face on daily basis are issues pertaining to the students’ welfare such as indiscipline, From my observation at school, lack of guidance and clarified direction has served as a tremendous reduction of energy, time, effort and resource. It would prove difficult to delegate authority to individuals or self-managed groups when â€Å"followers do not trust each other, because they will not share information or cooperate in trying to solve mutual problems† (Yulk, 2002,p.109). The lack of invitational characteristics in a leader would slow the effective pace of work. An effective leader will work to bring about positive and long lasting change, when change is necessary within organisation. By doing so, he would invite staff into collaboration, will work carefully to bring about change in a way that the school’s member will not only be involved but would be pleased with the eventual outcome of the change. Schein (2000) disc ussed, â€Å"change programs fail because they do not take into consideration the underlying culture.† In order for an organisation to survive, it is imperative that strong and healthy relationships are formed. Likewise, these carefully formed relationships can help to formulate a culture of acceptance and desire to achieve excellence. Schein (1996) defined culture as the â€Å"set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, think about, and react to its various environments† (p.236). At the school, the Rector is a vital component in creating the culture. However, the administrators’ role in understanding that culture is equally important. This creates a sense of ownership and a shared leadership. Respect and trust thus serve as a primary component of an organisation’s healthy culture. To illustrate this idea, it is important that the Rector, educators and administrators understand what takes place within the school. Invitational Leadership argued that leader cannot create a climate of empowerment and participation if the underlying belief of culture is that everyone must do whatever the boss says they should do. I firmly agree that leadership through coercion and fear is not effective when attempting to create a productive team. Additionally, as stipulated by Purkey & Siegel (2002), messages communicate to people which inform them that they are able, responsible and worthwhile. These messages should be made accessible to every person in the school, conveying the intention of the leaders, so making everyone part of the institution. These messages are corresponded though â€Å"inter-personal action, but also through institutional policies, programmes, practices and physical environments† (Day et al., 2001, p.34). Furthermore, Purkey and Siegel (2003) postulate a specific framework by which schools can become â€Å"invitational† by concentrating on the five areas contributing to success and failures. Each one of these elements contributes to the creation of a positive school climate and ultimately a healthy and successful organisation. The Starfish Analogy by Purkey Invitational leadership focusses on five areas which contribute to the success or failure of individuals. Purkey refers to it as the Starfish Analogy: The starfish lives to eat oysters. To defend itself, the oyster has two stout shells that fasten tightly together and held in place by a powerful muscle. The starfish finds the oyster and places itself on top of its intended victim. Gradually, gently, and firmly the starfish uses each of its five points in turn to keep pressure on the oyster’s one muscle. While one point works, the other four rest. The single oyster muscle, while incredibly powerful, gets no rest. Inevitably, and irresistibly, the oyster is opened and the starfish has its meal. By constant, steady pressure from a number of points, even the strongest muscle (and the biggest challenge) can be overcome. These five areas â€Å"exist in practically every environment† and serve as a means to invite others professionally (Purkey, 1992, p.7) 1. People – Purkey (1992) affirmed that â€Å"nothing is more important in life than people. It is the people who create a respectful, optimistic5 visibility. 2. Places – refers to physical environment of an organisation. It has been suggested that places are the easiest of the five areas to change due to their visibility. 3. Policies- â€Å"policies refer to the procedures, codes, rules, written or unwritten, used to regulate the on-going functions of individuals and organizations† (Purkey, 1992,p.7) 4. Programs – play an important role in invitational leadership â€Å"because programs often focus on narrow objectives that neglect the wider scope of human needs’ (Purkey, 1002, p.7) 5. Processes – The â€Å"how something is accomplished† (Purkey & Siegel, 2003, p.125). It can be defined as the way that people, places, policies and programs are evident in schools. Purkey and Siegel (2003) refer to these five areas as a means to invite others professionally. They affirmed that â€Å"the combination of these five areas offers an almost limitless number of opportunities for the Invitational Leader, for they address the total culture †¦ of almost any organisation† (p.104) Conclusion This study was to investigate in what ways and to what degree, if any, an invitational leader impacts the overall effectiveness of the school setting. We focused in the first part on leadership qualities and characteristics which lead to success. We arrived at a common consensus that invitational leadership characteristics do influence the development of successful organizations. The invitational leadership model seeks to invite all interested stakeholders to succeed. As noted by Day, Harris, and Hadfield (2001) invitations are â€Å"messages communicated to people which inform then that they are able, responsible and worthwhile† (p.34) To conclude, it is believed that the invitational leadership model should serve as a practice to emulate in order to achieve positive results in effective leadership in schools. The active use of invitational leadership was proven to be a leadership model that should be considered effective when trying to create a healthy, positive and successful organization. ————————————————- References 1. Asbill, K. (1994). Invitational leadership: Teacher perceptions of inviting principal practices. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Educational Management, New Mexico State University. 2. 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